有关我国《婚姻法》中损害赔偿制度的几点看法/李秋菊

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          有关我国《婚姻法》中损害赔偿制度的几点看法
            黑龙江孟繁旭律师事务所 李秋菊
内容摘要:《婚姻法》第四十六条确定了离婚过错损害赔偿制度,使法律对婚姻当事人的合法权益的保护更进一步,使司法机关对相关案件进行裁判有了法律的依据,使我国婚姻家庭立法有了进一步的完善。但是该制度在实践操作中依然存在一些问题,使得对婚姻当事人合法权益的保护力度显得不足。本文就婚姻损害赔偿制度的构建基础,确立的意义,损害赔偿的要件,适用条件,赔偿义务主体的范围,以及实际操作中的归责原则等问题进行了论述和探讨,并提出了一些现实存在的问题及自己的看法与建议。

关键词: 婚姻的契约本质 损害赔偿 婚内损害赔偿 举证责任

(一) 确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的基础
有学者认为确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的依据源于民法上的侵权损害赔偿。对破坏婚姻关系的行为认定为侵害名誉权责任,依照侵害名誉权的法律处理。也有关点认为应将破坏婚姻关系认定为侵害配偶权的民事责任,实行精神损害赔偿。
本文认为:确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的依据在于婚姻的契约本质。
长期以来,我国并没有采用婚姻契约理论,传统认为“ 婚姻是男女双方精神上的结合”,“爱情是不应该用金钱来衡量的”,更有反对确立婚姻损害赔偿的人士认为:损害赔偿制度违反了婚姻的伦理本质,并使婚姻关系商业化,法律解决道德的问题是不妥当的等等。总之,这是因为对婚姻的本质存在不同看法而导致的不同结论。婚姻是男女双方为共同生活之目的而依法结成的以人身和财产权利义务为内容的一种民事契约。就是说,婚姻的本质是一种契约,而契约不仅强调权利,更强调自由。因此,我们可以说,婚姻意味着自由。法律上的婚姻自由制度的根据就是契约自由,包括结婚自由与离婚自由。我国采取结婚登记主义。这说明,婚姻契约的缔结必须严格依照婚姻法进行。它的内容就是夫妻双方各自所享有的婚姻权利和各自所应履行的婚姻义务。这种权利义务包含了人身和财产两个方面;而且婚姻当事人可以选择离婚来解除这种权利义务,即婚姻契约的解除。以上内容均可反映出婚姻的契约本质。离婚损害赔偿制度,就是从婚姻救助措施的角度来反映婚姻的“契约”本质的。我国修改前的婚姻法并无离婚损害赔偿制度。而国外立法却早在几百年前就确立了这项制度。如1791年法国《宪法》、法国民法典、墨西哥民法典均确立了这项制度。
婚姻的“契约”本质在我国受到禁锢,似乎承认婚姻是一种契约,仿佛就是把婚姻看成了一种可耻的交易。应当说,这种理念回避了婚姻关系的本来面目,也限制了婚姻自由原则的贯彻和实现。近年来,随着民众“契约”理念的渐趋深入,有关婚姻本质的认识也越来越明晰。并且,这种认识已经反映到婚姻立法上来。我国现行的婚姻法正是基于婚姻的契约本质而确立了损害赔偿制度。尤其是《婚姻法》第四十六条的规定,过错方已经严重违反了婚姻契约之义务,理应承担损害赔偿之责任。
(二) 《婚姻法》确立损害赔偿制度的意义
 2001年,我国《婚姻法》确立的离婚损害赔偿制度的意义可以概括为以下几个方面 :
(1)建立离婚损害赔偿制度,是目前社会形势下保护婚姻一方当事人合法权益的需要,有利于警示、惩罚重婚,姘居,通奸,婚外恋,家庭暴力等过错当事人的行为。
(2)建立离婚损害赔偿制度,是公序良俗的需要,是社会主义和谐社会的需要。在人们对包二奶,通奸,姘居等行为日渐麻木漠然 ,社会风气日渐沦下的今日,用法律的手段,来提高道德的认识是必要的。社会主义精神文明要树立崇尚法治婚姻,道德家庭的理念。
(3)建立离婚损害赔偿制度,是完善婚姻家庭法,加强民事法律制度的需要。家庭是社会的细胞,婚姻家庭的稳定是社会稳定的重要基础之一。
(4)建立离婚损害赔偿制度,是司法有法必依,违法必究的需要。从以往的司法实践看,由于我国原婚姻法没有规定离婚损害赔偿制度,只能按照分割共同财产时照顾无过错方的原则来操作。但是在财产很少甚至没有财产的情况下,该照顾原则根本无法适用,无法给予无过错的受害方以公平合理的保护;同时使违法行为没有得到及时的处理和制裁。因此,让司法有法必依,离婚损害赔偿制度的确立至关重要。
有反对该项制度建立者认为:损害赔偿制度违反婚姻的伦理本质,而惩罚第三者是用法律干涉私人的感情世界,道德问题不能用法律的手段来解决,并且容易造成侵犯他人隐私,捉奸成风的不良风气,司法介入婚姻过错的调查,取证困难,诉讼成本高,操作难等等。笔者认为,婚姻法范畴固然含有伦理因素,但是它更是一项法律制度,如前所述,我国采结婚登记主义,婚姻这项契约必须严格依照婚姻法缔结。它不仅关系到当事人的巨大利益,更涉及社会利益,理应受法律的严格保护。调查难,诉讼成本高不能成为反对立法的理由。葛洲坝水利工程难、成本高,为什么国家还要建设?因为它建成后的社会效益可观。那么建立婚姻法上的损害赔偿,其社会效益,精神效益从长远看亦不会小!
(三) 损害赔偿的要件
根据婚姻法的立法精神,损害赔偿制度的构成要件有以下几点:
1、行为人具有主观上的过错
  这是损害赔偿的主观方面要件,即要求一方主观有过错。如果行为人主观上无过错,则不承担赔偿责任。
2、行为具有违法性
  这是损害赔偿的客观行为要件,即过错方的行为违反了婚姻法的规定或婚姻契约对婚姻义务的要求。
3、请求权人有受损害的事实
这是损害赔偿的客观后果要件,即享有请求权的一方当事人必须具有损害事实,包括财产损害与精神损害。事实上,也只有当无过错一方有损害事实时,才享有损害赔偿请求权。
需要强调和补充的是:通说精神损害赔偿要有精神损害的事实。因为精神本身是抽象的,又要求它用法律所要求下的事实状态表现出来更是难上加难。“在学理上为了解决精神损害存在的客观性,有学者和实务者将精神损害分为“名义上的精神损害”和“证实的精神损害”。所谓“名义上的精神损害”又称“形式上的精神损害”,只要受害人有举证侵害人的侵权行为明确存在的表现形式,依一般的认识水平,相信受害人确实存在遭受精神损害的事实,法律则推定这个损害的真实性。所谓“证实的精神损害”也称“实证的精神损害”,法律不能推定受害人是否存在精神损害的真实性,受害人必须举出证据加以证明是否存在心理上,身体上,精神上受到损害。”笔者认为:通说要件所述的精神损害的事实应理解为是“名义上的精神损害”。只要有侵害婚姻家庭的危害行为的存在,即推定受害方存在有精神损害而无须再辅以证据加以证明。
4、过错行为与损害事实具有因果关系
这是损害赔偿的因果关系要件,即违法行为与无过错一方的损害事实具有法律上的因果关系。

(四) 损害赔偿的适用条件
本文在阐述中一直强调婚姻的损害赔偿,而非离婚的损害赔偿。这正是本文的重要观点之一——确立独立的婚姻损害赔偿制度,支持婚内损害赔偿。
《婚姻法》第46条适用的条件是"有下列情形之一,导致离婚的,无过错方有权请求损害赔偿……"这应该理解为对损害赔偿请求权之提起确定了一个前提条件吧? 那么,如果婚姻一方当事人不要求离婚就不能提出损害赔偿的请求么?难道说无过错方要想得到赔偿就必须以离婚为代价么?笔者认为,这种规定,无疑使离婚请求权与损害赔偿请求权形成了一种“强行配售关系”,如果婚姻一方当事人想主张损害赔偿,那么离婚便成为了一种“强制搭配品”,否则损害赔偿就无从提起。然而离婚请求权与损害赔偿请求权是两种本质截然不同的权利。离婚请求权是基于婚姻关系的破裂而主张夫妻关系的解除,损害赔偿请求权是基于违背婚姻法所规定的义务的违法行为而主张受损权益的法律保护。因此,应将婚姻法中的损害赔偿请求权作为一项独立的请求权,取消以离婚为前提的限制,支持婚内损害赔偿的请求。也许有人认为这种赔偿没有什么意义?判来判去都是一家人的财产。但笔者认为,这样界定是有意义的。它可以整体提高人们对家庭,对婚姻义务的重视,起到警示的作用,而对有过错一方进行惩罚和教育,即体现了法律的威力所在,又有利于过错方悔悟,使其“回头是岸”,促进家庭和社会的稳定。如果一定要以离婚为代价,对无过错一方也是不公平的。并且对于这种因婚内赔偿无过错方所取得的财产或财产权利亦应认定为其个人财产。家庭是社会的组成细胞,其稳定与否,在一定因素上关系到社会的各个方面,如果确立这种独立的赔偿请求权,从长远的角度看,其社会效益,精神效益都是可观的。

(五) 损害赔偿义务主体范围的界定
《婚姻法》第46条,在责任主体上界定模糊。从条文分析,损害赔偿义务人限制在夫妻双方的范围之内,这使得受害人在权利保护上受到影响。实际上,是免除了有过错的第三方的连带责任。无过错方可否向“第三者”主张赔偿呢?笔者认为可以。第三者介入他人的婚姻,是对现行法律保护的婚姻制度的破坏,同其他的违法行为的本质是相同的,而不仅仅再是道德问题,法律必须做出否定的评价并采取相应的措施予以制止,制裁。因为配偶一方与婚外第三人重婚、姘居、通奸是严重的违法行为,第三者大都有过错,理应承担赔偿责任。不过,无过错方不应在离婚之诉中向第三者主张权利而应另行提起侵权之诉;如果,象本文第四点所述的,允许婚内赔偿的话,无过错方则可以以有过错的配偶和第三人为共同侵权人提起侵权之诉。有的专家、学者称“惩罚第三者有可能导致捉奸成风,司法上难以操作。”笔者认为:只要第三人插足于他人家庭并有重大过错,如重婚、姘居、长期通奸,及导致他人离婚的就应受到民事制裁,即承担民事赔偿责任,“情节严重的,追究刑事责任,亦不免除其应承担的民事责任。”追究第三人责任体现了一种立法价值取向,维护公序良俗。当由道德约束的问题超越了社会文明的底线,则需要法律来维持它的正义和标准。如果法律对第三者的重大过错视而不管,仅对离婚过错方进行惩罚,将达不到法律所预期的预防,警示及教育,惩罚作用。而且设立向婚姻损害第三方主张损害赔偿的制度也是多数国家法律的通例。

(六) 婚姻损害赔偿制度在举证责任方面存在的问题
根据婚姻法第四十六条的规定,有权主张损害赔偿的是“无过错方”。其意味着婚姻法中的损害赔偿制度的归责原则是过错责任原则,以过错为归责的最终要件。这样举证的责任就落在了无过错的受害一方。在单纯的适用过错责任原则的情形下,对提出损害赔偿请求者要求其承担举证责任,对这一证据的采集要求在婚姻家庭领域存有相当的难度。⑥《最高人民法院关于适用〈中华人民共和国婚姻法〉若干问题的解释(一)》(以下简称为若干解释)第二条规定:“婚姻法第三条、第三十二条、第四十六条规定的‘有配偶者与他人同居’的情形,是指有配偶者与婚外异性,不以夫妻名义,持续、稳定地共同居住。”权利主张者如何来证明配偶与婚外异性该种关系的持续性、稳定性呢?有些权利主张者在束手无策的情况下,雇佣私家侦探或干脆自己充当起私家侦探的角色,期望借助这些手段来实现自己的权利请求。但往往会由于收集证据材料及运用证据不当而引发权益之间的冲突。譬如,将捉奸照公布于众,可能引发配偶一方损害赔偿请求权的法律保护与第三者隐私权的法律保护的冲突;将同居的事实大肆渲染,可能引发配偶一方损害赔偿请求权的法律保护与第三者名誉权的法律保护的冲突等等。当然,有相当一部分权利主张者根本无法提供此方面的证据材料。在这种种状况下,一味地实行谁主张谁举证,便可能导致该种局面:由于证据的不足或缺乏证据,权利主张方的请求权实现不了,应承担责任的一方则可逃脱法律的惩处。法院的法官明知存有侵权的事实却苦于证据的缺乏而无法对被侵犯的民事权益给予相应的民事救济。在该种局面下,损害赔偿制度确立的立法价值,其所透析的立法精神便荡然无存。
笔者认为:适当适时适地地采用过错推定,实行举证责任倒置,会加大受害方合法权益的保护力度。
如果可以这样操作,那么有相当一些问题可以得到解决。“我们主张,无过错责任或者特殊侵权场合,我国民法应借鉴法国的经验,侵权人侵害自然人物质性人格权,无论侵权人有无过错,均应承担精神损害赔偿责任。换言之,在受害人之物质性人格权遭受侵害,受害人请求精神损害赔偿场合,可以适用过错责任,也可以适用无过错责任。”正由于过错推定是从保护受害人利益考虑而产生的,其主要目的是对受害人提供救济, 因此笔者认为可以也应该将过错推定原则引入到婚姻家庭领域中的损害赔偿制度中。例如在重婚、与婚外异性同居等情况下,无过错方要求给予精神损害赔偿,应采用过错推定的原则,由过错方对其对精神损害的后果没有过错进行举证。
正如本文前面所述,“法律视婚姻仅为民事契约”, 确立婚姻法的损害赔偿制度源于婚姻的“契约”本质,更何况婚姻家庭关系是感情色彩非常浓厚的民事法律关系,它具有强烈的伦理道德性,复杂性,会使婚姻家庭领域随时可能出现法律所预料未及的新情况、新问题。过错推定原则也会有助于对此类婚姻家庭的新情况、新问题进行及时的调整。同时,也加大了对无过错受害方的保护力度。

综合前六方面的论述,笔者在婚姻损害赔偿制度方面存在了以下的看法及建议:婚姻损害赔偿制度的建立源于婚姻的“契约”本质;确立这项制度是我国目前婚姻家庭观念“世风日下”,恢复道德伦理的公序良俗的需要;对于婚姻法中的精神损害应理解为“名义的精神损害”为宜;损害赔偿不应局限在离婚条件之下,亦应及于婚姻持续的过程中;损害赔偿的义务人应包括有过错的配偶一方和第三人(权利主张者以何名义诉之在所不问);适当适时适地地采用过错推定原则来加大无过错受害方的保护力度。
参考文献:
(1)王利明 主编 《民法*侵权行为法》 中国人民大学出版社
(2)王利明 主编 《民商法研究》
(3)林秀雄《婚姻家庭法之研究》,中国政法大学出版社
(4)李银河 马忆男 主编《婚姻法修改论争》光明日报出版社
(5)关今华 主编 《精神损害赔偿数额的确定与评算》
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南京市低收入居民家庭收入核对暂行办法

  第一条 为切实做好低收入居民家庭收入核对工作,有效规范收入核对行为,根据国家有关规定,结合我市实际,制定本办法。

  第二条 本办法适用于政府相关部门和单位在实施最低生活保障、住房保障等制度时,对提出申请的居民个人或者家庭,委托本市有关核对机构对其收入状况开展调查、核实等活动。
接受本市有关核对机构对其收入状况开展调查核实的居民个人或者家庭,本办法统称为“核对对象”

  第三条 核对工作应当坚持依法、科学、客观、公正的原则,切实保护核对对象的合法权益。

  第四条 市民政部门主管本市低收入居民家庭收入核对工作。市低收入家庭资格认定服务中心(以下简称“核对机构”)受市民政部门的委托,具体负责本市低收入居民家庭收入核对的日常管理工作。

  第五条 政府相关部门和单位受理本市居民个人或者家庭提出的最低生活保障、住房保障等项目申请后,按照规定需要以其收入状况作为参考的,可以委托核对机构进行调查核实。

  第六条 收入核对的内容包括核对对象的可支配收入、财产。其中,可支配收入包括工资性收入、经营性收入、财产性收入、转移性收入等;财产包括实物财产、货币财产等。

  第七条 除本办法第六条规定的核对内容外,核对对象的支出与其提供的收入状况明显不符的,核对机构可以对相应支出情况进行调查。

  第八条 核对机构在核对过程中,需要政府相关部门和单位提供信息的,相关部门和单位应给予积极配合,提供方便和帮助。

  第九条 核对对象应当如实提供个人或者家庭收入状况的有关信息,不得隐瞒和虚报,并应积极配合核对机构依法开展调查工作。

  第十条 核对机构按照下列途径开展核对工作:

  (一)工资性收入:通过调查就业和劳动报酬、各种福利收入,以及社会保险费、个人所得税的缴纳等情况进行核对。

  (二)经营性净收入:通过调查工商登记、企业或者个体工商户的生产经营情况,以及个人或企业所得税的缴纳等情况进行核对。

  (三)财产性收入:通过调查利息、股息与红利、保险收益、出租房屋收入,以及知识产权的收益等情况进行核对。

  (四)转移性收入:通过调查养老金、失业保险金、社会救济金、住房公积金的领取情况,以及获得赠与、补偿、赔偿等情况进行核对。

  (五)实物财产:通过调查房产、车辆,以及古董、艺术品等有较大价值的实物拥有情况进行核对。

  (六)货币财产:通过调查存款、有价证券持有情况,以及债权债务等情况进行核对。

  第十一条 对需要了解核对对象有关存款、有价证券、商业保险等情况的,核对对象应当根据核对机构的要求,书面授权并积极协助核对机构进行调查核对。
银行、证券、保险等机构应当根据核对对象的书面授权,依法向核对机构提供与核对对象相关的存款、有价证券、商业保险等信息。

  第十二条 核对对象所在工作单位及其户籍地或者居住地的街道办事处(镇政府)、居(村)委会等相关单位和组织,应当协助配合核对机构开展工作。

  第十三条 政府相关部门和单位应当向核对机构提供核对对象的下列信息:

  (一)市民政部门负责提供定期救助和生活补贴领取等情况。

  (二)市住房保障部门负责提供房产拥有、房产交易和房屋出租等情况。

  (三)市人力资源和社会保障部门负责提供就业、缴纳社会保险费和领取社会保险金等情况。

  (四)市公安部门负责提供车辆拥有情况。

  (五)市税务部门负责提供个人、个体工商户以及企业的纳税情况。

  (六)市住房公积金中心负责提供住房公积金交纳和使用等情况。

  (七)市工商部门负责提供企业和个体工商户的注册登记、生产经营等情况。

  (八)市交通运输部门负责提供出租车驾驶员的收入情况。

  (九)银行、证券等金融部门负责提供银行存款、股票和基金及其红利、债券利息等金融性资产收入情况。

  (十)其他应当提供的有关信息。

  相关部门和单位对核对机构需要核对的信息,应当在5个工作日内核对完成并反馈。

  第十四条 核对机构对通过规定途径获得的相关信息进行核实后,应当出具书面核对报告,并反馈给政府相关部门和单位。

  书面核对报告作为政府相关部门和单位作出有关审批决定的参考。

  第十五条 核对对象对审批决定提出异议时,政府相关部门和单位认为有必要复核其收入状况的,可以要求核对机构进行复核。

  核对机构应当在7个工作日内,将复核结果书面告知相关部门和单位。

  第十六条 核对机构应当建立调查、核实的工作规范和责任制度,保障核对工作依法、及时、准确和公正。

  核对机构应当建立严格统一的管理制度,采取必要的措施,保证信息系统的安全运行。

  核对机构进行信息调取等核对工作时,应当派出至少2名工作人员,并出示相关证件或介绍信。

  第十七条 核对机构及其工作人员应当履行保密义务,不得泄露在核对过程中获得的涉及核对对象的信息。

  第十八条 本办法自2010年11月1日起施行。




GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ——附加英文版

The National People's Congress


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

(Adopted at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People's
Congress, promulgated by Order No. 37 of the President of the People's
Republic of China on April 12, 1986, and effective as of January 1, 1987)

Contents
Chapter I Basic Principles
Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil
Conduct
Section 2 Guardianship
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm
Households
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social
Organization as Legal Persons
Section 4 Economic Association
Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Section 2 Agency
Chapter V Civil Rights
Section 1 Property Ownership and Related Property Rights
Section 2 Creditors' Rights
Section 3 Intellectual Property Rights
Section 4 Personal Rights
Chapter VI Civil Liability
Section 1 General Stipulations
Section 2 Civil Liability for Breach of Contract
Section 3 Civil Liability for Infringement of Rights
Section 4 Methods of Bearing Civil Liability
Chapter VII Limitation of Action
Chapter VIII Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners
Chapter IX Supplementary Provisions

Chapter I Basic Principles
Article 1
This Law is formulated in accordance with the Constitution and the actual
situation in our country, drawing upon our practical experience in civil
activities, for the purpose of protecting the lawful civil rights and
interests of citizens and legal persons and correctly adjusting civil
relations, so as to meet the needs of the developing socialist
modernization.
Article 2
The Civil Law of the People's Republic of China shall adjust property
relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects with equal
status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between
citizens and legal persons.
Article 3
Parties to a civil activity shall have equal status.
Article 4
In civil activities, the principles of voluntariness, fairness, making
compensation for equal value, honesty and credibility shall be observed.
Article 5
The lawful civil rights and interests of citizens and legal persons shall
be protected by law; no organization or individual may infringe upon them.
Article 6
Civil activities must be in compliance with the law; where there are no
relevant provisions in the law, they shall be in compliance with state
policies.
Article 7
Civil activities shall have respect for social ethics and shall not harm
the public interest, undermine state economic plans or disrupt social
economic order.
Article 8
The law of the People's Republic of China shall apply to civil activities
within the People's Republic of China, except as otherwise stipulated by
law.
The stipulations of this Law as regards citizens shall apply to foreigners
and stateless persons within the People's Republic of China, except as
otherwise stipulated by law.

Chapter II Citizen (Natural Person)
Section 1 Capacity for Civil Rights and Capacity for Civil Conduct.
Article 9
A citizen shall have the capacity for civil rights from birth to death and
shall enjoy civil rights and assume civil obligations in accordance with
the law.
Article 10
All citizens are equal as regards their capacity for civil rights.
Article 11
A citizen aged 18 or over shall be an adult. He shall have full capacity
for civil conduct, may independently engage in civil activities and shall
be called a person with full capacity for civil conduct.
A citizen who has reached the age of 16 but not the age of 18 and whose
main source of income is his own labour shall be regarded as a person with
full capacity for civil conduct.
Article 12
A minor aged 10 or over shall be a person with limited capacity for civil
conduct and may engage in civil activities appropriate to his age and
intellect; in other civil activities, he shall be represented by his agent
ad litem or participate with the consent of his agent ad litem.
A minor under the age of 10 shall be a person having no capacity for civil
conduct and shall be represented in civil activities by his agent ad
litem.
Article 13
A mentally ill person who is unable to account for his own conduct shall
be a person having no capacity for civil conduct and shall be represented
in civil activities by his agent ad litem.
A mentally ill person who is unable to fully account for his own conduct
shall be a person with limited capacity for civil conduct and may engage
in civil activities appropriate to his mental health; in other civil
activities, he shall be represented by his agent ad litem or participate
with the consent of his agent ad litem.
Article 14
The guardian of a person without or with limited capacity for civil
conduct shall be his agent ad litem.
Article 15
The domicile of a citizen shall be the place where his residence is
registered; if his habitual residence is not the same as his domicile, his
habitual residence shall be regarded as his domicile.
Section 2 Guardianship
Article 16
The parents of a minor shall be his guardians.
If the parents of a minor are dead or lack the competence to be his
guardian, a person from the following categories who has the competence to
be a guardian shall act as his guardian:
(1) paternal or maternal grandparent;
(2) elder brother or sister; or
(3) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the units of the
minor's parents or from the neighbourhood or village committee in the
place of the minor's residence. In case of a dispute over guardianship,
the units of the minor's parents or the neighbourhood or village committee
in the place of his residence shall appoint a guardian from among the
minor's near relatives. If disagreement over the appointment leads to a
lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first two paragraphs of this article
is available to be the guardian, the units of the minor's parents, the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of the minor's residence
or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 17
A person from the following categories shall act as guardian for a
mentally ill person without or with limited capacity for civil conduct:
(1) spouse;
(2) parent;
(3) adult child;
(4) any other near relative;
(5) any other closely connected relative or friend willing to bear the
responsibility of guardianship and having approval from the unit to which
the mentally ill person belongs or from the neighbourhood or village
committee in the place of his residence. In case of a dispute over
guardianship, the unit to which the mentally ill person belongs or the
neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his residence shall
appoint a guardian from among his near relatives. If disagreement over the
appointment leads to a lawsuit, the people's court shall make a ruling.
If none of the persons listed in the first paragraph of this article is
available to be the guardian, the unit to which the mentally ill person
belongs, the neighbourhood or village committee in the place of his
residence or the civil affairs department shall act as his guardian.
Article 18
A guardian shall fulfil his duty of guardianship and protect the person,
property and other lawful rights and interests of his ward. A guardian
shall not handle the property of his ward unless it is in the ward's
interests.
A guardian's rights to fulfil his guardianship in accordance with the law
shall be protected by law.
If a guardian does not fulfil his duties as guardian or infringes upon the
lawful rights and interests of his ward, he shall be held responsible; if
a guardian causes any property loss for his ward, he shall compensate for
such loss. The people's court may disqualify a guardian based on the
application of a concerned party or unit.
Article 19
A person who shares interests with a mental patient may apply to a
people's court for a declaration that the mental patient is a person
without or with limited capacity for civil conduct.
With the recovery of the health of a person who has been declared by a
people's court to be without or with limited capacity for civil conduct,
and upon his own application or that of an interested person, the people's
court may declare him to be a person with limited or full capacity for
civil conduct.
Section 3 Declarations of Missing Persons and Death
Article 20
If a citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years, an interested
person may apply to a people's court for a declaration of the citizen as
missing.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 21
A missing person's property shall be placed in the custody of his spouse,
parents, adult children or other closely connected relatives or friends.
In case of a dispute over custody, if the persons stipulated above are
unavailable or are incapable of taking such custody, the property shall be
placed in the custody of a person appointed by the people's court. Any
taxes, debts and other unpaid expenses owed by a missing person shall
defrayed by the custodian out of the missing person's property.
Article 22
In the event that a person who has been declared missing reappears or his
whereabouts are ascertained, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
missing-person status.
Article 23
Under either of the following circumstances, an interested person may
apply to the people's court for a declaration of a citizen's death:
(1) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for four years or
(2) if the citizen's whereabouts have been unknown for two years after the
date of an accident in which he was involved.
If a person's whereabouts become unknown during a war, the calculation of
the time period in which his whereabouts are unknown shall begin on the
final day of the war.
Article 24
In the event that a person who has been declared dead reappears or it is
ascertained that he is alive, the people's court shall, upon his own
application or that of an interested person, revoke the declaration of his
death.
Any civil juristic acts performed by a person with capacity for civil
conduct during the period in which he has been declared dead shall be
valid.
Article 25
A person shall have the right to request the return of his property, if
the declaration of his death has been revoked. Any citizen or organization
that has obtained such property in accordance with the Law of Succession
shall return the original items or make appropriate compensation if the
original items no longer exist.
Section 4 Individual Businesses and Leaseholding Farm Households
Article 26
"Individual businesses" refers to business run by individual citizens who
have been lawfully registered and approved to engage in industrial or
commercial operation within the sphere permitted by law. An individual
business may adopt a shop name.
Article 27
"Leaseholding farm households" refers to members of a rural collective
economic organization who engage in commodity production under a contract
and within the spheres permitted by law.
Article 28
The legitimate rights and interests of individual businesses and
leaseholding farm households shall be protected by law.
Article 29
The debts of an individual business or a leaseholding farm household shall
be secured with the individual's property if the business is operated by
an individual and with the family's property if the business is operated
by a family.
Section 5 Individual Partnership
Article 30
"Individual partnership" refers to two or more citizens associated in a
business and working together, with each providing funds, material
objects, techniques and so on according to an agreement.
Article 31
Partners shall make a written agreement covering the funds each is to
provide, the distribution of profits, the responsibility for debts, the
entering into and withdrawal from partnership, the ending of partnership
and other such matters.
Article 32
The property provided by the partners shall be under their unified
management and use. The property accumulated in a partnership operation
shall belong to all the partners.
Article 33
An individual partnership may adopt a shop name; it shall be approved and
registered in accordance with the law and conduct business operations
within the range as approved and registered.
Article 34
The operational activities of an individual partnership shall be decided
jointly by the partners, who each shall have the right to carry out and
supervise those activities. The partners may elect a responsible person.
All partners shall bear civil liability for the operational activities of
the responsible person and other personnel.
Article 35
A partnership's debts shall be secured with the partners' property in
proportion to their respective contributions to the investment or
according to the agreement made. Partners shall undertake joint liability
for their partnership's debts, except as otherwise stipulated by law. Any
partner who overpays his share of the partnership's debts shall have the
right to claim compensation from the other partners.

Chapter III Legal Persons
Section 1 General Stipulations
Article 36
A legal person shall be an organization that has capacity for civil rights
and capacity for civil conduct and independently enjoys civil rights and
assumes civil obligations in accordance with the law.
A legal person's capacity for civil rights and capacity for civil conduct
shall begin when the legal person is established and shall end when the
legal person terminates.
Article 37
A legal person shall have the following qualifications:
(1) establishment in accordance with the law;
(2) possession of the necessary property or funds;
(3) possession of its own name, organization and premises; and
(4) ability to independently bear civil liability.
Article 38
In accordance with the law or the articles of association of the legal
person, the responsible person who acts on behalf of the legal person in
exercising its functions and powers shall be its legal representative.
Article 39
A legal person's domicile shall be the place where its main administrative
office is located.
Article 40
When a legal person terminates, it shall go into liquidation in accordance
with the law and discontinue all other activities.
Section 2 Enterprise as Legal Person
Article 41
An enterprise owned by the whole people or under collective ownership
shall be qualified as a legal person when it has sufficient funds as
stipulated by the state; has articles of association, an organization and
premises; has the ability to independently bear civil liability; and has
been approved and registered by the competent authority. A Chinese-
foreign equity joint venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or
foreign-capital enterprise established within the People's Republic of
China shall be qualified as a legal person in China if it has the
qualifications of a legal person and has been approved and registered by
the administrative agency for industry and commerce in according with the
law.
Article 42
An enterprise as legal person shall conduct operations within the range
approved and registered.
Article 43
An enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability for the
operational activities of its legal representatives and other personnel.
Article 44
If an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged or undergoes any
other important change, it shall register the change with the registration
authority and publicly announce it.
When an enterprise as legal person is divided or merged, its rights and
obligations shall be enjoyed and assumed by the new legal person that
results from the change.
Article 45
An enterprise as legal person shall terminate for any of the following
reasons:
(1) if it is dissolved by law;
(2) if it is disbanded;
(3) if it is declared bankrupt in accordance with the law; or
(4) for other reasons.
Article 46
When an enterprise as legal person terminates, it shall cancel its
registration with the registration authority and publicly announce the
termination.
Article 47
When an enterprise as legal person is disbanded, it shall establish a
liquidation organization and go into liquidation. When an enterprise as
legal person is dissolved or is declared bankrupt, the competent authority
or a people's court shall organize the organs and personnel concerned to
establish a liquidation organization to liquidate the enterprise.
Article 48
An enterprise owned by the whole people, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property that the state authorizes it to manage. An
enterprise under collective ownership, as legal person, shall bear civil
liability with the property it owns. A Chinese-foreign equity joint
venture, Chinese-foreign contractual joint venture or foreign-capital
enterprise as legal person shall bear civil liability with the property it
owns, except as stipulated otherwise by law.
Article 49
Under any of the following circumstances, an enterprise as legal person
shall bear liability, its legal representative may additionally be given
administrative sanctions and fined and, if the offence constitutes a
crime, criminal responsibility shall be investigated in accordance with
the law:
(1) conducting illegal operations beyond the range approved and registered
by the registration authority;
(2) concealing facts from the registration and tax authorities and
practising fraud;
(3) secretly withdrawing funds or hiding property to evade repayment of
debts;
(4) disposing of property without authorization after the enterprise is
dissolved, disbanded or declared bankrupt;
(5) failing to apply for registration and make a public announcement
promptly when the enterprise undergoes a change or terminates, thus
causing interested persons to suffer heavy losses;
(6) engaging in other activities prohibited by law, damaging the interests
of the state or the public interest.
Section 3 Official Organ, Institution and Social Organization as Legal
Person
Article 50
An independently funded official organ shall be qualified as a legal
person on the day it is established.
If according to law an institution or social organization having the
qualifications of a legal person needs not go through the procedures for
registering as a legal person, it shall be qualified as a legal person on
the day it is established; if according to law it does need to go through
the registration procedures, it shall be qualified as a legal person after
being approved and registered.
Section 4 Economic Association
Article 51
If a new economic entity is formed by enterprises or an enterprise and an
institution that engage in economic association and it independently bears
civil liability and has the qualifications of a legal person, the new
entity shall be qualified as a legal person after being approved and
registered by the competent authority.
Article 52
If the enterprises or an enterprise and an institution that engage in
economic association conduct joint operation but do not have the
qualifications of a legal person, each party to the association shall, in
proportion to its respective contribution to the investment or according
to the agreement made, bear civil liability with the property each party
owns or manages. If joint liability is specified by law or by agreement,
the parties shall assume joint liability.
Article 53
If the contract for economic association of enterprises or of an
enterprise and an institution specifies that each party shall conduct
operations independently, it shall stipulate the rights and obligations of
each party, and each party shall bear civil liability separately.

Chapter IV Civil Juristic Acts and Agency
Section 1 Civil Juristic Acts
Article 54
A civil juristic act shall be the lawful act of a citizen or legal person
to establish, change or terminate civil rights and obligations.
Article 55
A civil juristic act shall meet the following requirements:
(1) the actor has relevant capacity for civil conduct;
(2) the intention expressed is genuine; and
(3) the act does not violate the law or the public interest.
Article 56
A civil juristic act may be in written, oral or other form. If the law
stipulates that a particular form be adopted, such stipulation shall be
observed.
Article 57
A civil juristic act shall be legally binding once it is instituted. The
actor shall not alter or rescind his act except in accordance with the law
or with the other party's consent.
Article 58
Civil acts in the following categories shall be null and void:
(1) those performed by a person without capacity for civil conduct;
(2) those that according to law may not be independently performed by a
person with limited capacity for civil conduct;
(3) those performed by a person against his true intentions as a result of
cheating, coercion or exploitation of his unfavourable position by the
other party;
(4) those that performed through malicious collusion are detrimental to
the interest of the state, a collective or a third party;
(5) those that violate the law or the public interest;
(6) economic contracts that violate the state's mandatory plans; and
(7) those that performed under the guise of legitimate acts conceal
illegitimate purposes. Civil acts that are null and void shall not be
legally binding from the very beginning.
Article 59
A party shall have the right to request a people's court or an arbitration
agency to alter or rescind the following civil acts:
(1) those performed by an actor who seriously misunderstood the contents
of the acts;
(2) those that are obviously unfair.
Rescinded civil acts shall be null and void from the very beginning.
Article 60
If part of a civil act is null and void, it shall not affect the validity
of other parts.
Article 61
After a civil act has been determined to be null and void or has been
rescinded, the party who acquired property as a result of the act shall
return it to the party who suffered a loss. The erring party shall
compensate the other party for the losses it suffered as a result of the
act; if both sides are in error, they shall each bear their proper share
of the responsibility.
If the two sides have conspired maliciously and performed a civil act that
is detrimental to the interests of the state, a collective or a third
party, the property that they thus obtained shall be recovered and turned
over to the state or the collective, or returned to the third party.
Article 62
A civil juristic act may have conditions attached to it. Conditional civil
juristic acts shall take effect when the relevant conditions are met.
Section 2 Agency
Article 63
Citizens and legal persons may perform civil juristic acts through agents
An agent shall perform civil juristic acts in the principal's name within
the scope of the power of agency. The principal shall bear civil liability
for the agent's acts of agency. Civil juristic acts that should be
performed by the principal himself, pursuant to legal provisions or the
agreement between the two parties, shall not be entrusted to an agent.
Article 64
Agency shall include entrusted agency, statutory agency and appointed
agency. An entrusted agent shall exercise the power of agency as
entrusted by the principal; a statutory agent shall exercise the power of
agency as prescribed by law; and an appointed agent shall exercise the
power of agency as designated by a people's court or the appointing unit.
Article 65
A civil juristic act may be entrusted to an agent in writing or orally. If
legal provisions require the entrustment to be written, it shall be
effected in writing. Where the entrustment of agency is in writing, the
power of attorney shall clearly state the agent's name, the entrusted
tasks and the scope and duration of the power of agency, and it shall be
signed or sealed by the principal.
If the power of attorney is not clear as to the authority conferred, the
principal shall bear civil liability towards the third party, and the
agent shall be held jointly liable.
Article 66
The principal shall bear civil liability for an act performed by an actor
with no power of agency, beyond the scope of his power of agency or after
his power of agency has expired, only if he recognizes the act
retroactively. If the act is not so recognized, the performer shall bear
civil liability for it. If a principal is aware that a civil act is being
executed in his name but fails to repudiate it, his consent shall be
deemed to have been given.
An agent shall bear civil liability if he fails to perform his duties and
thus causes damage to the principal.
If an agent and a third party in collusion harm the principal's interests,
the agent and the third party shall be held jointly liable.
If a third party is aware that an actor has no power of agency, is
overstepping his power of agency, or his power of agency has expired and
yet joins him in a civil act and thus brings damage to other people, the
third party and the actor shall be held jointly liable.
Article 67
If an agent is aware that the matters entrusted are illegal but still
carries them out, or if a principal is aware that his agent's acts are
illegal but fails to object to them, the principal and the agent shall be
held jointly liable.
Article 68
If in the principal's interests an entrusted agent needs to transfer the

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